Numerous species from such Families as: Testudinidae, Bataguridae, Platysternidae, Trionychidae, Carettochelyidae, Chelidae, Dermochelyidae, and Cheloniidae
Chinese Names: Gui Ban, Bei Jia
As of 2008, IUCN had reviewed the conservation status of over 1,300 of the world’s reptiles, and the organization found that 62% of 212 evaluated species of turtles and tortoises are threatened or endangered.39 Many turtle and tortoise species are listed in Appendix I or II of CITES, and most native Chinese species, in particular, have greatly declined in recent years.40 A number of threats contribute to the continued decline of turtle and tortoise populations, including large-scale trade for food and medicinal preparations, collection for the pet industry, habitat loss, and pollution.
Turtles and tortoises have been used in the traditional medicinal practices of many cultures. Turtle meat is considered to have high nutritional value according to TCM, and turtle shell is used as an ingredient in many TCM formulas and preparations. In particular, the shell is often turned into a jelly after being boiled in water with herbal and other ingredients. These products are used to treat a variety of conditions, including erectile dysfunction and even some cancers.40,41 According to the Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China, the carapace and plastron from Chinese pond turtle (Chinemys reevesii, Bataguridae) is used to treat conditions of the skeletal, renal, and cardiovascular systems, as well as mental conditions, and the carapace of Chinese softshell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis, Trionychidae) is used to reduce nodulations and relieve consumptive fever (A. Lee, e-mail, December 22, 2009). In fishing communities in Northeast Brazil, the fat of certain marine turtles has been used medicinally to treat rheumatism, earache, sore throat, and swelling.5,42
Large commercial turtle farms were established in China in the 1980s to meet rising demand for turtle products.43 By 2002, there were nearly 1,500 large turtle and tortoise breeding facilities on record in China. A survey conducted that year of 684 of such farms found that they collectively raised more than 300 million of the 11 most commonly reared turtle species—all of which are on the IUCN Red List. Such data reflects the massive scale of turtle farming in China, particularly as many illegally operating farms are also known to exist in the county. Turtle farms are also found in other Asian countries.
Wild turtle and tortoise populations are negatively impacted by large-scale turtle farming, particularly as turtle farms are the primary purchasers of wild-caught turtles.44 These farms need wild breeders both to increase their total stock and because successive generations of farmed turtles show decreased reproductive capabilities. Additionally, illegally obtained turtles can easily be laundered as farmed specimens, and the Chinese belief that wild animals are more potent encourages poaching as these animals fetch higher prices.
Surveys in Northeast Brazil, meanwhile, indicate that marine turtles used in traditional remedies are likewise included on the IUCN Red List, as well as Brazil’s official list of endangered species.5,42 Due to decreased numbers of these turtle species, some practitioners have reported that turtle-based remedies are now rarely used in Northeast Brazil. Others, however, have stated that many species are still captured and used for food and medicine.
Due to decreased turtle populations and concerns over sustainability, some efforts have been made to use or identify alternatives. Researchers have pointed out that many different animal species are sometimes used to treat particular diseases in Northeast Brazil, which enables adaptability when certain species become less available or accessible.5 Traditional practitioners surveyed in this area have also said that some animal species can be replaced with plants or used in association with them to treat disease, and the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas, Cheloniidae) was noted as being one such animal.
“The therapeutic properties of wild animals and plants and domestic or cultivated species overlap in many cases,” said Romulo R. N. Alves, professor at the Universidade Estadual da Paraiba and author of zootherapy studies in Brazil (e-mail, December 2, 2009). “The substituted plant depends on the diseases treated,” he continued, adding that he is not aware of which particular botanical species are used as substitutes for turtle.
In the 2002 survey of herbal practitioners from Mending the Web of Life, 116 respondents provided information on possible replacements for Asian tortoise in TCM.14 The most commonly recommended alternative was freshwater turtle, although senior practitioners pointed out that freshwater turtle would not be a good substitute since they too are endangered. Seventeen respondents suggested nu zhen zi (Ligustrum lucidum, Oleaceae) as a potential replacement. Further, for particular actions of tortoise shell, senior practitioners recommended a combination of Paeonia lactiflora and Rehmannia glutinosa for “nourishing yin and anchoring yang,” Eucommia ulmoides (Eucommiaceae) for benefiting kidneys and strengthening bones, and Sanguisorba officinalis (Rosaceae) for “cooling the blood and stopping yin deficient uterine bleeding.”
Some researchers and herbalists have argued that there is no real benefit of turtle consumption at all. Researchers from China and California recently conducted a study into the nutritional value of 5 hardshell turtle species to test some of TCM’s claims.41 After testing samples of the turtles’ meat, fat, and shell, the researchers found that turtle shell and meat have lower fatty acid concentrations than other more readily available products, that amino acids found in turtle shell are difficult for humans to assimilate, and that turtles’ selenium content is not as high as TCM indicates. They concluded that human consumption of turtles could be completely substituted by cheaper domestic animals, aquatic animals, or mineral supplements, which are widely available and affordable.
Chinese herbalist Lo Yan-Wo, who has served as president of the Association of Chinese Medicine and Philosophy, has likewise argued that the medicinal value of turtle is minimal and that the herbs used in turtle jellies are the most important ingredients.40,45 He has stated that herbs are much cheaper, so many manufacturers and merchants add turtle simply to increase the price. According to Arthur Lee of the Chinese Medicine Council of Hong Kong, there is no unique formula for turtle jelly, but Chinese herbs commonly used in such products include Smilax glabra (Smilacaceae), Rehmannia glutinosa, Artemisia scoparia (Asteraceae), Lonicera japonica, and Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae).
The use and trade of turtles has far-reaching consequences. Some countries are increasingly relying upon imported turtles to satisfy local demands for turtles as food, medicine, pets, and other purposes. From 2002-2005, more than 30 million live native turtles were legally exported from the United States alone.39 Due to increased demands for freshwater turtles from Asia and South America, some US states have begun tightening their freshwater turtle harvesting rules—including Florida, which enacted the most restrictive turtle harvest rule in the United States in July 2009.46
Although promoting botanical alternatives to medicinally used turtle products might ease some pressures on turtle populations, it is important to bear in mind that alternatives would need to be overwhelmingly adopted for turtles’ other uses, as well. Turtles and tortoises are used as a source of protein by many cultural groups, and they are often considered a delicacy.47 According to Prof. Alves, “Many turtle zootherapeutical products are the result of hunting these animals for other purposes, and their subproducts are utilized for medicinal purposes.”
Conclusion
The use of endangered species for medicinal purposes is often illegal and usually not supported by licensed practitioners. Lixin Huang of ACTCM stated that products containing endangered animal ingredients would not be prescribed by TCM doctors or licensed acupuncturists. She added that many of these products are not manufactured by legitimate companies but by merchants, and they may not actually include the endangered species that they claim to contain.
Greg Livingston, PhD, a Chinese medicine physician with a clinical practice in Hangzhou, stated that most medicinal products made from endangered animal species are not easily available to mainland Chinese consumers, and most consumers are probably not even interested in taking them: “but in Asia, the population is so huge that all it takes is a tiny minority to become a large problem” (e-mail, November 19, 2009).
The continued demand by some consumers throughout the world for medicines created from endangered wildlife helps to fuel continued black market trafficking and local poaching, while the interests of various farm owners and merchants continue to negatively affect wild populations of threatened species.
Stopping the trade of endangered animal species for medicinal use is not a simple task. To do so involves addressing the socio-economic conditions that contribute to poaching in impoverished countries, rigorously enhancing enforcement of wildlife trafficking laws, and educating large numbers of people about conservation issues. Additionally, animal rights are a low priority within many countries. “In China, there are hundreds of millions of poor people, so most people here are more concerned with just taking care of the basic needs of people and consider animal welfare secondary to this,” explained Dr. Livingston.
Identifying substitutes for endangered and threatened animal species has had some positive results, but even this can prove challenging. In some countries where zootherapy is practiced, herbalists and consumers are not sufficiently aware of the threatened status of many animal species, so the importance of using substitutes is not realized. Additionally, research identifying substitutes to endangered animals is not always widely disseminated. There are also cultural beliefs regarding medicinal practice that can affect whether practitioners and consumers will accept proffered alternatives.
For instance, in TCM, domesticated animals are typically considered more appropriate substitutes to endangered animals than plants. “There is a big difference between animal and botanical substances,” said Dr. Livingston. “Chinese medicine says ‘xue rou you qing,’ which translates roughly as ‘animal substances have an affinity for the human body.’ These substances are easily absorbed, have strong effects, and can penetrate to a ‘deeper’ level of the body and thus affect physiological processes in a way that many botanical substances cannot.”
Convincing TCM proponents in Asia to accept botanical alternatives to endangered animal species may therefore prove particularly challenging, although botanical alternatives may be more appropriate for other audiences. Bria Larson, development officer of ACTCM, explained that US consumers, for instance, are often more open to botanical alternatives, particularly since many are vegetarians or believe strongly in animal rights issues. “There needs to be both options,” she said, noting that both animal and botanical alternatives are important for satisfying people of different cultural or personal belief systems (oral communication, September 1, 2009).
It is also imperative that the conservation status of suggested alternatives be monitored, lest the situation of the saiga antelope—formerly recommended as a replacement for rhino horn—be repeated. “In order to ensure the long-term abundance of Asian medicinal flora, we should definitely be researching how much can be produced sustainably before recommending it as an alternative,” said Jasmine Rose Oberste, founder of Chinese Herb Garden, a nonprofit dedicated to ensuring the sustainability of Asian medicinal plants (e-mail, October 13, 2009).
Additional research into the topic of medicinal endangered animal alternatives may be warranted, as may greater discussion of the needs for and challenges inherent to promoting substitutes. To this effect, the International Symposium for the Conservation of Endangered Species and TCM was held in Beijing in November 2009, sponsored by ACTCM and Animals Asia Foundation and held in conjunction with the World Federation of Chinese Medicine Societies’ (WFCMS) annual herbal committee meeting. The event brought together over 250 herbal vendors, practitioners, researchers, government officials, and representatives from the fields of TCM and environmental conservation. Lecturers presented data on the threatened status of various medicinally used animal species, as well as information on alternatives to endangered species.
According to Larson, the response to the symposium was very positive, and the event was successful in bringing conservation and science advocates together with a receptive Chinese medicine audience (oral communication, December 8, 2009). She added that the event seemed to offer new insight to many attendees. Although the endangered status of certain high-profile animals seems to be widely acknowledged within the TCM community, the conservation status of other animals—such as certain turtle species or the saiga antelope—do not appear to be as well known.
A working group of experts dedicated to the theme of endangered species and TCM held their first meeting at the symposium. According to Larson, this group intends to ultimately expand research on conservation topics into herbal curricula in China, as well as engage in other outreach efforts and initiate new research projects. Additionally, it is hoped that WFCMS will establish a permanent subcommittee on endangered species. Larson explained that this appears to be a very real possibility, although the process to initiate and gain approval for such a subcommittee may take some time.
As more stakeholders adopt the cause of ending medicinal use of threatened animals and promoting alternatives, there may be some hope in finding solutions to this crisis. “There’s going to be more endangered and threatened species as our global environment continues to be stressed, so it’s imperative that more research be done into conservation and substitutes for threatened species,” said Larson (oral communication, September 1, 2009).
Chinese Names: Gui Ban, Bei Jia
As of 2008, IUCN had reviewed the conservation status of over 1,300 of the world’s reptiles, and the organization found that 62% of 212 evaluated species of turtles and tortoises are threatened or endangered.39 Many turtle and tortoise species are listed in Appendix I or II of CITES, and most native Chinese species, in particular, have greatly declined in recent years.40 A number of threats contribute to the continued decline of turtle and tortoise populations, including large-scale trade for food and medicinal preparations, collection for the pet industry, habitat loss, and pollution.
Turtles and tortoises have been used in the traditional medicinal practices of many cultures. Turtle meat is considered to have high nutritional value according to TCM, and turtle shell is used as an ingredient in many TCM formulas and preparations. In particular, the shell is often turned into a jelly after being boiled in water with herbal and other ingredients. These products are used to treat a variety of conditions, including erectile dysfunction and even some cancers.40,41 According to the Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China, the carapace and plastron from Chinese pond turtle (Chinemys reevesii, Bataguridae) is used to treat conditions of the skeletal, renal, and cardiovascular systems, as well as mental conditions, and the carapace of Chinese softshell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis, Trionychidae) is used to reduce nodulations and relieve consumptive fever (A. Lee, e-mail, December 22, 2009). In fishing communities in Northeast Brazil, the fat of certain marine turtles has been used medicinally to treat rheumatism, earache, sore throat, and swelling.5,42
Large commercial turtle farms were established in China in the 1980s to meet rising demand for turtle products.43 By 2002, there were nearly 1,500 large turtle and tortoise breeding facilities on record in China. A survey conducted that year of 684 of such farms found that they collectively raised more than 300 million of the 11 most commonly reared turtle species—all of which are on the IUCN Red List. Such data reflects the massive scale of turtle farming in China, particularly as many illegally operating farms are also known to exist in the county. Turtle farms are also found in other Asian countries.
Wild turtle and tortoise populations are negatively impacted by large-scale turtle farming, particularly as turtle farms are the primary purchasers of wild-caught turtles.44 These farms need wild breeders both to increase their total stock and because successive generations of farmed turtles show decreased reproductive capabilities. Additionally, illegally obtained turtles can easily be laundered as farmed specimens, and the Chinese belief that wild animals are more potent encourages poaching as these animals fetch higher prices.
Surveys in Northeast Brazil, meanwhile, indicate that marine turtles used in traditional remedies are likewise included on the IUCN Red List, as well as Brazil’s official list of endangered species.5,42 Due to decreased numbers of these turtle species, some practitioners have reported that turtle-based remedies are now rarely used in Northeast Brazil. Others, however, have stated that many species are still captured and used for food and medicine.
Due to decreased turtle populations and concerns over sustainability, some efforts have been made to use or identify alternatives. Researchers have pointed out that many different animal species are sometimes used to treat particular diseases in Northeast Brazil, which enables adaptability when certain species become less available or accessible.5 Traditional practitioners surveyed in this area have also said that some animal species can be replaced with plants or used in association with them to treat disease, and the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas, Cheloniidae) was noted as being one such animal.
“The therapeutic properties of wild animals and plants and domestic or cultivated species overlap in many cases,” said Romulo R. N. Alves, professor at the Universidade Estadual da Paraiba and author of zootherapy studies in Brazil (e-mail, December 2, 2009). “The substituted plant depends on the diseases treated,” he continued, adding that he is not aware of which particular botanical species are used as substitutes for turtle.
In the 2002 survey of herbal practitioners from Mending the Web of Life, 116 respondents provided information on possible replacements for Asian tortoise in TCM.14 The most commonly recommended alternative was freshwater turtle, although senior practitioners pointed out that freshwater turtle would not be a good substitute since they too are endangered. Seventeen respondents suggested nu zhen zi (Ligustrum lucidum, Oleaceae) as a potential replacement. Further, for particular actions of tortoise shell, senior practitioners recommended a combination of Paeonia lactiflora and Rehmannia glutinosa for “nourishing yin and anchoring yang,” Eucommia ulmoides (Eucommiaceae) for benefiting kidneys and strengthening bones, and Sanguisorba officinalis (Rosaceae) for “cooling the blood and stopping yin deficient uterine bleeding.”
Some researchers and herbalists have argued that there is no real benefit of turtle consumption at all. Researchers from China and California recently conducted a study into the nutritional value of 5 hardshell turtle species to test some of TCM’s claims.41 After testing samples of the turtles’ meat, fat, and shell, the researchers found that turtle shell and meat have lower fatty acid concentrations than other more readily available products, that amino acids found in turtle shell are difficult for humans to assimilate, and that turtles’ selenium content is not as high as TCM indicates. They concluded that human consumption of turtles could be completely substituted by cheaper domestic animals, aquatic animals, or mineral supplements, which are widely available and affordable.
Chinese herbalist Lo Yan-Wo, who has served as president of the Association of Chinese Medicine and Philosophy, has likewise argued that the medicinal value of turtle is minimal and that the herbs used in turtle jellies are the most important ingredients.40,45 He has stated that herbs are much cheaper, so many manufacturers and merchants add turtle simply to increase the price. According to Arthur Lee of the Chinese Medicine Council of Hong Kong, there is no unique formula for turtle jelly, but Chinese herbs commonly used in such products include Smilax glabra (Smilacaceae), Rehmannia glutinosa, Artemisia scoparia (Asteraceae), Lonicera japonica, and Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae).
The use and trade of turtles has far-reaching consequences. Some countries are increasingly relying upon imported turtles to satisfy local demands for turtles as food, medicine, pets, and other purposes. From 2002-2005, more than 30 million live native turtles were legally exported from the United States alone.39 Due to increased demands for freshwater turtles from Asia and South America, some US states have begun tightening their freshwater turtle harvesting rules—including Florida, which enacted the most restrictive turtle harvest rule in the United States in July 2009.46
Although promoting botanical alternatives to medicinally used turtle products might ease some pressures on turtle populations, it is important to bear in mind that alternatives would need to be overwhelmingly adopted for turtles’ other uses, as well. Turtles and tortoises are used as a source of protein by many cultural groups, and they are often considered a delicacy.47 According to Prof. Alves, “Many turtle zootherapeutical products are the result of hunting these animals for other purposes, and their subproducts are utilized for medicinal purposes.”
Conclusion
The use of endangered species for medicinal purposes is often illegal and usually not supported by licensed practitioners. Lixin Huang of ACTCM stated that products containing endangered animal ingredients would not be prescribed by TCM doctors or licensed acupuncturists. She added that many of these products are not manufactured by legitimate companies but by merchants, and they may not actually include the endangered species that they claim to contain.
Greg Livingston, PhD, a Chinese medicine physician with a clinical practice in Hangzhou, stated that most medicinal products made from endangered animal species are not easily available to mainland Chinese consumers, and most consumers are probably not even interested in taking them: “but in Asia, the population is so huge that all it takes is a tiny minority to become a large problem” (e-mail, November 19, 2009).
The continued demand by some consumers throughout the world for medicines created from endangered wildlife helps to fuel continued black market trafficking and local poaching, while the interests of various farm owners and merchants continue to negatively affect wild populations of threatened species.
Stopping the trade of endangered animal species for medicinal use is not a simple task. To do so involves addressing the socio-economic conditions that contribute to poaching in impoverished countries, rigorously enhancing enforcement of wildlife trafficking laws, and educating large numbers of people about conservation issues. Additionally, animal rights are a low priority within many countries. “In China, there are hundreds of millions of poor people, so most people here are more concerned with just taking care of the basic needs of people and consider animal welfare secondary to this,” explained Dr. Livingston.
Identifying substitutes for endangered and threatened animal species has had some positive results, but even this can prove challenging. In some countries where zootherapy is practiced, herbalists and consumers are not sufficiently aware of the threatened status of many animal species, so the importance of using substitutes is not realized. Additionally, research identifying substitutes to endangered animals is not always widely disseminated. There are also cultural beliefs regarding medicinal practice that can affect whether practitioners and consumers will accept proffered alternatives.
For instance, in TCM, domesticated animals are typically considered more appropriate substitutes to endangered animals than plants. “There is a big difference between animal and botanical substances,” said Dr. Livingston. “Chinese medicine says ‘xue rou you qing,’ which translates roughly as ‘animal substances have an affinity for the human body.’ These substances are easily absorbed, have strong effects, and can penetrate to a ‘deeper’ level of the body and thus affect physiological processes in a way that many botanical substances cannot.”
Convincing TCM proponents in Asia to accept botanical alternatives to endangered animal species may therefore prove particularly challenging, although botanical alternatives may be more appropriate for other audiences. Bria Larson, development officer of ACTCM, explained that US consumers, for instance, are often more open to botanical alternatives, particularly since many are vegetarians or believe strongly in animal rights issues. “There needs to be both options,” she said, noting that both animal and botanical alternatives are important for satisfying people of different cultural or personal belief systems (oral communication, September 1, 2009).
It is also imperative that the conservation status of suggested alternatives be monitored, lest the situation of the saiga antelope—formerly recommended as a replacement for rhino horn—be repeated. “In order to ensure the long-term abundance of Asian medicinal flora, we should definitely be researching how much can be produced sustainably before recommending it as an alternative,” said Jasmine Rose Oberste, founder of Chinese Herb Garden, a nonprofit dedicated to ensuring the sustainability of Asian medicinal plants (e-mail, October 13, 2009).
Additional research into the topic of medicinal endangered animal alternatives may be warranted, as may greater discussion of the needs for and challenges inherent to promoting substitutes. To this effect, the International Symposium for the Conservation of Endangered Species and TCM was held in Beijing in November 2009, sponsored by ACTCM and Animals Asia Foundation and held in conjunction with the World Federation of Chinese Medicine Societies’ (WFCMS) annual herbal committee meeting. The event brought together over 250 herbal vendors, practitioners, researchers, government officials, and representatives from the fields of TCM and environmental conservation. Lecturers presented data on the threatened status of various medicinally used animal species, as well as information on alternatives to endangered species.
According to Larson, the response to the symposium was very positive, and the event was successful in bringing conservation and science advocates together with a receptive Chinese medicine audience (oral communication, December 8, 2009). She added that the event seemed to offer new insight to many attendees. Although the endangered status of certain high-profile animals seems to be widely acknowledged within the TCM community, the conservation status of other animals—such as certain turtle species or the saiga antelope—do not appear to be as well known.
A working group of experts dedicated to the theme of endangered species and TCM held their first meeting at the symposium. According to Larson, this group intends to ultimately expand research on conservation topics into herbal curricula in China, as well as engage in other outreach efforts and initiate new research projects. Additionally, it is hoped that WFCMS will establish a permanent subcommittee on endangered species. Larson explained that this appears to be a very real possibility, although the process to initiate and gain approval for such a subcommittee may take some time.
As more stakeholders adopt the cause of ending medicinal use of threatened animals and promoting alternatives, there may be some hope in finding solutions to this crisis. “There’s going to be more endangered and threatened species as our global environment continues to be stressed, so it’s imperative that more research be done into conservation and substitutes for threatened species,” said Larson (oral communication, September 1, 2009).
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