African white (Ceratotherium simum), African black (Diceros bicornis), Indian (Rhinoceros unicornis), Javan (R. sondaicus), Sumatran (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)
Family: Rhinocerotidae Like the tiger, the rhinoceros has had a long history of use in TCM, and rhino populations have suffered because of it. Fewer than 25,000 rhinoceroses currently survive in the wild,23 and rhino species have been listed in either Appendix I or II of CITES since 1977.24
The horn of the rhinoceros is unique from that of other animals in that it is composed entirely of keratin, the same substance as hair and nails, with dense mineral deposits at its center.25 Although many of the rhinoceros’ body parts have been utilized in TCM, the animal’s horn has been particularly prized as a medicinal ingredient. Rhino horn has been used for thousands of years in TCM to treat fever, convulsions, and hemorrhagic conditions.11,13 It is also popularly used to relieve dizziness, build energy, nourish the blood, and cure laryngitis, among other uses.26
Asian rhinoceroses were once widely distributed throughout southern and southeast Asia, but overwhelming demand for rhino horn for TCM led to their sharp decline.24 African rhino species have also been heavily poached, both for traditional medicinal use in Asia and for use in making traditional daggers in Yemen. Even after the rhinoceros’ listing in CITES, poachers continued to decimate rhino populations during the 1980s and early 1990s, causing rhino numbers to reach their lowest levels in history.27 As with tiger bone, some countries instituted their own bans on use and trade of rhino horn, including China in 1993.
TCM practitioners have therefore been encouraged for many years to substitute other ingredients in place of rhino horn. In the early 1990s, conservation groups encouraged substituting rhino horn with the horn of the saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica, Bovidae)—a well-intentioned plan that had disastrous results.28 Over a million saiga antelopes roamed Russia and Kazakhstan in 1993, but fewer than 30,000 (mostly hornless females) remained by 2003 due to rampant poaching and use in TCM. After experiencing one of the most rapid and dramatic population crashes of any mammal, the saiga antelope was added to the Red List of critically endangered species in 2002, and TCM practitioners are now actively discouraged from using saiga antelope horn, as well. The horns of water buffalo and cows are now commonly promoted as alternatives to rhino horn.13
During the 1990s, Paul But, PhD, then a professor at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, performed experiments in rats to test the effectiveness of rhino horn and some of its alternatives.8 His study found that rhino horn and high doses of water buffalo horn could reduce fever and counter toxins, as could a combination of herbs without any type of horn. In a 1993 paper, the Chinese Association of Medicine and Philosophy recommended Rehmannia glutinosa (Scrophulariaceae) and Coptis chinensis (Ranunculaceae) as acceptable botanical substitutes for rhino horn, based on Dr. But’s study.29
The 2002 survey of herbal practitioners featured in Mending the Web of Life, mentioned earlier in this article, noted potential botanical replacements for rhino horn.14 Of the 83 respondents who provided suggestions for replacing rhino horn, the second most cited suggestion (after water buffalo horn) was sheng di huang (Rehmannia glutinosa). Respondents also recommended Uncaria rhynchophylla (Rubiaceae) as a potential alternative for “clearing heat and arresting tremors”—a specific action assigned to rhino horn.
For the 2006 report commissioned by DEFRA and IFAW, also mentioned previously, both rhino horn and plants considered as having functions similar to rhino horn were investigated through assays.11 Rhino horn did not demonstrate anti-bacterial or anti-inflammatory properties through testing, but most of the herbs selected as possible alternatives demonstrated some anti-bacterial activity and/or potential anti-inflammatory properties.
The report identified 9 potential botanical alternatives to rhino horn, based on tests conducted by the authors and evidence from published TCM and other scientific literature: Rehmannia glutinosa root, Scrophularia ningpoensis (Scrophulariaceae) root, Paeonia suffruticosa (Paeoniaceae) root,
P. veitchii or P. lactiflora root, Arnebia euchroma (Boraginaceae) root, Isatais indigotica (Brassicaceae) root, Lonicera japonica (Caprifoliaceae) flower bud, Forsythia suspensa (Oleaceae) fruit, and Salvia miltiorrhiza (Lamiaceae) root. After the early 1990s, some rhino populations—primarily African rhino species—grew substantially. White rhino populations increased from 7,095 in 1995 to 17,500 by the end of 2007, and black rhino populations increased from 2,410 in 1995 to 4,240 by the end of 2007.27,30
Unfortunately, increased poaching within the last decade threatens to undo such progress. According to a 2007 report, the amount of rhino horn entering illegal trade from Africa has significantly increased since 2000.27 That report noted that at least 664 rhino horns from Africa were acquired with the intention of illicit trade during 2000-2005.
Moreover, in July of 2009, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), WWF, and TRAFFIC released a new report indicating that rhino poaching has seemingly increased to its highest level in 15 years.31 According to the report, the poaching stems from demand for rhino horn in Asia, and evidence indicates ongoing involvement of Vietnamese, Chinese, and Thai nationals in the illegal trafficking of rhino horn out of Africa. The report adds that Vietnam only recently became a major destination for illegally traded rhino horn, and research suggests that rhino horn is currently being promoted in that country for medical uses that go far beyond applications described in traditional literature. For instance, rhino horn appears to be used in Vietnam for treating a range of life-threatening illnesses, such as cancers.
According to Susie Ellis, PhD, executive director of the International Rhino Foundation (IRF), the increased rate of rhino poaching could ultimately cause African rhino populations to crash to the same low levels of previous decades, if not lower (oral communication, November 16, 2009). She stated that a number of factors appear to be contributing to the increased rhino poaching, including China’s burgeoning economy and a rise in well-armed and highly organized poaching gangs. She added that there is a breakdown in the enforcement chain, which is enabling poachers to traffic rhino horn with little threat of punishment in African countries and allowing rhino horn to enter Asian markets despite bans on the ingredient. “People trying to conserve rhinos are having to physically move them in order to protect them,” she said.
IRF and TRAFFIC are planning to initiate a study to better understand the present demand behind rhino poaching. According to Dr. Ellis, they plan to investigate where rhino horn is being trafficked, what it’s being used for, and other factors relating to the current black market trade. “We need to know what’s going on before we figure out how to solve the problem,” said Dr. Ellis.
She added that rhino horn’s long-standing reputation as an effective medicinal ingredient has made it particularly difficult to completely wipe out demand, despite the fact that there is little scientific basis for using rhino horn and that modern synthetic products for alleviating fevers, such as aspirin, acetaminophen and ibuprofen, are readily available. “We hope that people would use [modern alternatives] rather than a product that requires the sacrifice of these magnificent animals,” said Dr. Ellis..
Family: Rhinocerotidae Like the tiger, the rhinoceros has had a long history of use in TCM, and rhino populations have suffered because of it. Fewer than 25,000 rhinoceroses currently survive in the wild,23 and rhino species have been listed in either Appendix I or II of CITES since 1977.24
The horn of the rhinoceros is unique from that of other animals in that it is composed entirely of keratin, the same substance as hair and nails, with dense mineral deposits at its center.25 Although many of the rhinoceros’ body parts have been utilized in TCM, the animal’s horn has been particularly prized as a medicinal ingredient. Rhino horn has been used for thousands of years in TCM to treat fever, convulsions, and hemorrhagic conditions.11,13 It is also popularly used to relieve dizziness, build energy, nourish the blood, and cure laryngitis, among other uses.26
Asian rhinoceroses were once widely distributed throughout southern and southeast Asia, but overwhelming demand for rhino horn for TCM led to their sharp decline.24 African rhino species have also been heavily poached, both for traditional medicinal use in Asia and for use in making traditional daggers in Yemen. Even after the rhinoceros’ listing in CITES, poachers continued to decimate rhino populations during the 1980s and early 1990s, causing rhino numbers to reach their lowest levels in history.27 As with tiger bone, some countries instituted their own bans on use and trade of rhino horn, including China in 1993.
TCM practitioners have therefore been encouraged for many years to substitute other ingredients in place of rhino horn. In the early 1990s, conservation groups encouraged substituting rhino horn with the horn of the saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica, Bovidae)—a well-intentioned plan that had disastrous results.28 Over a million saiga antelopes roamed Russia and Kazakhstan in 1993, but fewer than 30,000 (mostly hornless females) remained by 2003 due to rampant poaching and use in TCM. After experiencing one of the most rapid and dramatic population crashes of any mammal, the saiga antelope was added to the Red List of critically endangered species in 2002, and TCM practitioners are now actively discouraged from using saiga antelope horn, as well. The horns of water buffalo and cows are now commonly promoted as alternatives to rhino horn.13
During the 1990s, Paul But, PhD, then a professor at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, performed experiments in rats to test the effectiveness of rhino horn and some of its alternatives.8 His study found that rhino horn and high doses of water buffalo horn could reduce fever and counter toxins, as could a combination of herbs without any type of horn. In a 1993 paper, the Chinese Association of Medicine and Philosophy recommended Rehmannia glutinosa (Scrophulariaceae) and Coptis chinensis (Ranunculaceae) as acceptable botanical substitutes for rhino horn, based on Dr. But’s study.29
The 2002 survey of herbal practitioners featured in Mending the Web of Life, mentioned earlier in this article, noted potential botanical replacements for rhino horn.14 Of the 83 respondents who provided suggestions for replacing rhino horn, the second most cited suggestion (after water buffalo horn) was sheng di huang (Rehmannia glutinosa). Respondents also recommended Uncaria rhynchophylla (Rubiaceae) as a potential alternative for “clearing heat and arresting tremors”—a specific action assigned to rhino horn.
For the 2006 report commissioned by DEFRA and IFAW, also mentioned previously, both rhino horn and plants considered as having functions similar to rhino horn were investigated through assays.11 Rhino horn did not demonstrate anti-bacterial or anti-inflammatory properties through testing, but most of the herbs selected as possible alternatives demonstrated some anti-bacterial activity and/or potential anti-inflammatory properties.
The report identified 9 potential botanical alternatives to rhino horn, based on tests conducted by the authors and evidence from published TCM and other scientific literature: Rehmannia glutinosa root, Scrophularia ningpoensis (Scrophulariaceae) root, Paeonia suffruticosa (Paeoniaceae) root,
P. veitchii or P. lactiflora root, Arnebia euchroma (Boraginaceae) root, Isatais indigotica (Brassicaceae) root, Lonicera japonica (Caprifoliaceae) flower bud, Forsythia suspensa (Oleaceae) fruit, and Salvia miltiorrhiza (Lamiaceae) root. After the early 1990s, some rhino populations—primarily African rhino species—grew substantially. White rhino populations increased from 7,095 in 1995 to 17,500 by the end of 2007, and black rhino populations increased from 2,410 in 1995 to 4,240 by the end of 2007.27,30
Unfortunately, increased poaching within the last decade threatens to undo such progress. According to a 2007 report, the amount of rhino horn entering illegal trade from Africa has significantly increased since 2000.27 That report noted that at least 664 rhino horns from Africa were acquired with the intention of illicit trade during 2000-2005.
Moreover, in July of 2009, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), WWF, and TRAFFIC released a new report indicating that rhino poaching has seemingly increased to its highest level in 15 years.31 According to the report, the poaching stems from demand for rhino horn in Asia, and evidence indicates ongoing involvement of Vietnamese, Chinese, and Thai nationals in the illegal trafficking of rhino horn out of Africa. The report adds that Vietnam only recently became a major destination for illegally traded rhino horn, and research suggests that rhino horn is currently being promoted in that country for medical uses that go far beyond applications described in traditional literature. For instance, rhino horn appears to be used in Vietnam for treating a range of life-threatening illnesses, such as cancers.
According to Susie Ellis, PhD, executive director of the International Rhino Foundation (IRF), the increased rate of rhino poaching could ultimately cause African rhino populations to crash to the same low levels of previous decades, if not lower (oral communication, November 16, 2009). She stated that a number of factors appear to be contributing to the increased rhino poaching, including China’s burgeoning economy and a rise in well-armed and highly organized poaching gangs. She added that there is a breakdown in the enforcement chain, which is enabling poachers to traffic rhino horn with little threat of punishment in African countries and allowing rhino horn to enter Asian markets despite bans on the ingredient. “People trying to conserve rhinos are having to physically move them in order to protect them,” she said.
IRF and TRAFFIC are planning to initiate a study to better understand the present demand behind rhino poaching. According to Dr. Ellis, they plan to investigate where rhino horn is being trafficked, what it’s being used for, and other factors relating to the current black market trade. “We need to know what’s going on before we figure out how to solve the problem,” said Dr. Ellis.
She added that rhino horn’s long-standing reputation as an effective medicinal ingredient has made it particularly difficult to completely wipe out demand, despite the fact that there is little scientific basis for using rhino horn and that modern synthetic products for alleviating fevers, such as aspirin, acetaminophen and ibuprofen, are readily available. “We hope that people would use [modern alternatives] rather than a product that requires the sacrifice of these magnificent animals,” said Dr. Ellis..
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